Tag Archives: model

March 23, 2014

Nation (2007) The Four Strands

strands

 

Nation, I. S. P. (2007). The Four Strands. Innovation in Language Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 1-12

I frequently recommend Nation’s Four Strands to balance language learning experiences, so I re-read Nation’s original article just to check my understanding.

Nation’s Four Strands of 25% meaning-focused input, 25% meaning-focused output, 25% language-focused learning, and 25% fluency development continue throughout language learning experiences with approximately equal time spent on each strand.

Meaning-focused input and output are similar: input is reading and listening and output is writing and speaking. To define activities as meaning-focused input and output, learners must be familiar with most of language (95-98% of vocabulary), genuinely interested in understanding input and conveying output, and have enormous quantities of input and output. Examples of meaning-focused input are reading news articles online every day or watching several seasons of a TV series, and examples of meaning-focused output are frequently talking in conversations or regularly updating a blog. Nation supports his ideas with research (including Krashen’s (1995) Input Hypothesis and Swain’s (2005) Output Hypothesis) and the time-on-task principle, i.e. simply the more you do something, the better you will be at doing it.

Language-focused learning is the deliberate learning of language features (e.g. pronunciation, spelling, vocabulary, grammar, discourse) and language learning strategies. To define activities as language-focused learning, learners must give deliberate attention to language features, process language in deep thoughtful ways, use spaced repetition for learning, and use features at appropriate levels that are used in other strands. Examples of language-focused learning are memorizing dialogues and using (online/app) dictionaries.

Fluency development focuses on using known language fast and automatically for all language skills. To define activities as fluency development, learners must be familiar with all of the language (100% of vocabulary), focus on understanding and/or conveying meaning, have a sense of urgency, and have enormous quantities of input and output. Examples of fluency development are quickly skim reading texts, 4/3/2 repetitious speaking activities, writing within limited time frames, and listening to TV presenters (e.g. Jamie Oliver) who speak fast!

Nation bases his Four Strands on ten sound language learning principles.

Learners need to
1. use enormous quantities of comprehensible input,
2. notice language during input,
3. use wide variety of genres during output,
4. use cooperative interaction,
5. learn language deliberately,
6. use language learning strategies,
7. develop fluency,
8. balance the Four Strands,
9. repeat useful language,
10. assess learning needs.

If you follow Nation’s simple framework, you’ll have good language learning.

February 22, 2014

Reid (2011) teacher education

Reid, J. (2011). A practice turn for teacher education? Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 39(4), 293-310.

Reid argues for alternative professional teacher-education, specifically practice-experiences, to address limitations and integrate teacher-education models. Reid justifies her need to change teacher-education by reminding us of our problems.

Education strives to improve and reform, appearing to be continually frustrated with current teaching practice and fascinated with cutting-edge teaching practice (Carlgren, 1998). We have to remember that teaching practice resists change because it is ‘rhizomatic’: new-ways of teaching are off-shoots from old-ways of teaching that live on and on and on (Phelan & Sumsion, 2008). Basically, 20th Century learner-teachers practice teaching in 19th Century schools with 21st Century children and learning contexts (Britzman, 2009).

In addition, novice teachers are not really inexperienced teachers because they have observed teaching for at least a decade: this familiarity makes it difficult to perceive and accept new ways of teaching. Using an apprenticeship model of teacher-education, on-going generations of teachers remain essentially unchanged. We need to critically examine teaching practice as something strange and foreign, rather than unquestionably repeat existing practice. Reid states that learner-teachers need to feel like novices through deconstruction of core practices, which are modeled, explained, rehearsed, and evaluated. Leraner-teachers need to practice separate skills in simplified contexts, before simultaneously applying multiple skills in complex learning contexts. In-line with Grossman (1991, 2008, 2009), ultimately Reid seeks to integrate theory and practice (and praxis and rational action) to improve the teacher-learning and education-development.

Finally a few quick definitions of essential terms. Aldrich (2006) describes teacher-education models as apprenticeship or training or disciplinary study. Dreyfus (1980) defines teacher-education as consisting of initial teacher education (for novice teachers), transitional teacher education (for advanced beginners and competent performers), and continuing teacher education (for proficient performers and experts).